Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP)

For thousands of years, the Ute people traveled through the RMNP mountains in the warmer months, hunting and foraging in the lush valleys and alpine meadows. Later, the Arapaho and other tribes also camped and hunted in the high country. By the mid-1800s, European-American exploration began; most notably the Long Expedition of 1820, which passed near what would become Longs Peak. The 1859 gold rush brought miners and short-lived settlements like Lulu City, and soon after, ranchers tried (and struggled) to graze livestock in the unforgiving winters.

But even as settlers came for resources, others came for the view. In the early 1900s, naturalist Enos Mills, who ran a lodge in Estes Park, began passionately advocating for national park status. His efforts paid off when President Woodrow Wilson signed the Rocky Mountain National Park Act in 1915, creating the park’s first protected boundaries. Early on, budgets were tight, so roads and trails were minimal. During the 1920s and 1930s, as automobile tourism boomed, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) set up six camps and built new trails, planted trees, and constructed the now-famous Trail Ridge Road, that replaced the older, steeper Fall River Road.

Though World War II briefly slowed visitation, crowds returned in force after the war. The 1950s Mission 66 initiative funded new visitor centers at Beaver Meadows, Kawuneeche, and Alpine, plus modernized roads and campgrounds. In 1974, President Nixon recommended that approximately 239,835 acres of RMNP, along with 479 additional acres, be officially designated as wilderness. In 1980, a boundary adjustment transferred 2,917 acres of wilderness from the Indian Peaks Wilderness into RMNP, which remained the park’s only officially designated wilderness until 2009. On March 30, 2009, President Obama signed the Omnibus Public Lands Management Act, officially designating nearly 250,000 acres of the park as the RMNP Wilderness Area. Today, about 250,000 of the park’s 265,770 acres are permanently protected as federally designated wilderness.

Of course, with popularity comes pressure. RMNP has worked to balance conservation with crowds, launching shuttle bus systems in 1978 and, since 2024, timed-entry reservations during peak seasons to reduce congestion and protect fragile areas.

Through all its chapters; Indigenous heritage, gold rush dreams, conservation victories, and modern challenges, RMNP has remained a place for wonder, reflection, and renewal. It celebrated its centennial in 2015, and still lives up to its mission: to protect these peaks, valleys, and fragile tundra for generations to come.

Long before it became a national park, RMNP was part of the homelands and seasonal hunting grounds of Indigenous peoples. The Ute and Arapaho peoples lived and traveled across what is now RMNP for centuries, along with visits from tribes like the Shoshone, Apache, Comanche, and Cheyenne. The Ute people, whose traditional territory spanned Colorado’s high country, favored the west side of the park, especially around Grand Lake and the Kawuneeche Valley, for summer hunting.

Meanwhile, the Arapaho hunted the east side, in places like Estes Valley and the headwaters of the Big Thompson River. These hunting grounds were prized, and names like Milner Pass trace back to old Arapaho routes across the mountains.

Today, RMNP honors this Indigenous legacy. You’ll find artifacts from Ute and Arapaho cultures in the park’s museum collections, and ranger programs often highlight Native American stories and ancient travel routes, like Trail Ridge Road, which follows a path long used by Indigenous travelers.

Just outside the park, the site of Camp Wheeler/Medicine Bow preserves stories shared in 1914 by Arapaho elders, who identified traditional names and meanings for the park’s peaks and valleys.

The park also includes modern acknowledgments of its Indigenous roots, with land acknowledgments and occasional cultural events or demonstrations hosted in collaboration with local tribes. These lands still matter deeply to Native communities, not just as part of their past, but as part of their living story.

But that’s just one chapter in the park’s cultural tale. RMNP is also shaped by the era of early homesteaders and tourism, with historic spots like the Holzwarth Historic Site on the west side, once a working guest ranch. Over on the east side, McGraw Ranch, now used for scientific research, reflects the park’s ranching heritage.

The park’s creation was fueled by conservationists and dreamers like Enos Mills, who championed the idea of protecting this land for everyone. He, along with F.O. Stanley (yes, the man behind the Stanley Hotel), helped make Estes Park and the national park idea take root in Colorado.

Enos Mills - Father of RMNP
Long before RMNP became one of the most visited places in the country, a teenage boy named Enos Mills arrived in Colorado looking for healing. At just 14 years old, he left Kansas alone, hoping the mountain air would help his lifelong stomach troubles. Not only did it help his health, it also gave him something more: a deep love for nature that would shape the rest of his life.

By age 15, Mills had built a small cabin in Longs Peak Valley with a clear view of Long Peaks, which he had become enamored with. That winter, he climbed Longs Peak for the first time. Over the years, he reached the top 297 times, not to break records, but to share the magic of the mountains with others. He guided more than 250 trips up Longs Peak, including one with 8-year-old Harriet Peters, who became the youngest climber of her time. When they returned, she told him, “Some time I want to go up by moonlight.”

A turning point came in 1889, when Mills met conservationist John Muir on a California beach. Muir encouraged him to write and speak up for the Rockies, just as Muir had done for Yosemite. Mills took the advice to heart. He wrote sixteen books, gave over 2,000 lectures in just two years, and continued sharing stories about wildlife, trees, glaciers, and the value of wild places. He believed national parks weren’t just beautiful, they were places to learn, heal, and find joy.

Mills also believed that everyone should be able to experience nature. He started the Trail School, the first program in the U.S. to train nature guides. His 1920 book, Adventures of a Nature Guide, still inspires park rangers today. In 1915, thanks to his years of tireless advocacy and help from national organizations, RMNP was officially created. Although the park was smaller than what he had hoped for, it was a huge victory for education and public access.

Even after the park was established, Mills kept fighting. He spoke out against early National Park Service policies that gave exclusive rights to transportation companies, making park visits expensive for everyday people. He believed the roads should be free and open to all, a change that finally came just weeks before he died in 1922.

Mills lived a life full of passion and purpose. He worked winters in copper mines to support himself before his writing and Longs Peak Inn could cover the costs. He chose to carry a camera instead of a gun, and often wrote about beavers, pine trees, and mountain adventures. He believed that sharing the outdoors could change lives, and it did.

Today, you can still visit his original cabin (now known as the Enos Mills Cabin Museum) south of Estes Park just off S St Vrain Ave. You can climb Longs Peak or take a quiet walk and imagine what it was like to hear Enos Mills speak. His legacy lives on in every guide, every ranger talk, and every person who falls in love with the Rockies. Mills once said, “In years to come when I am asleep beneath the pines, thousands of families will find rest and hope in this park.”

Today, more than 4 million people a year walk the trails he fought for. His dream didn’t just come true, it blossomed.

The Agnes Vaille Shelter
High on the eastern face of Longs Peak stands the Agnes Vaille Shelter, a silent tribute to one of Colorado's most enduring mountaineering legends. Agnes Wolcott Vaille, a fearless and accomplished climber, was known for scaling many of Colorado’s most challenging peaks. By 1924, no one had yet conquered the east face of Longs Peak in winter, but Agnes, undeterred by the risks, resolved to make history.

She wasn’t one to go it alone. Agnes teamed up with fellow mountaineer Walter Kiener, a 25-year-old Swiss immigrant fluent in three languages and deeply experienced in alpine climbing. Their shared ambition turned into a series of failed winter attempts: one in October 1924 ended when Kiener lost his ice axe; a November try was foiled by navigation errors; and a December attempt was cut short by brutal weather. Yet their determination never waned.

On January 10, 1925, the pair arrived at the Longs Peak Inn and prepared to try once more. The next morning, January 11, they set out under deteriorating weather conditions. With no advanced gear or protective clothing, standard today but unavailable then, they painstakingly cut steps into the snow and ice, battling extreme cold and wind. After 25 grueling hours, they stood atop the summit at 4 a.m. on January 12. Their moment of triumph was short-lived.

Both were severely fatigued, but Agnes in particular was in visible distress. As daylight returned, she appeared pale, her eyes bloodshot, her voice eerie with exhaustion. On the descent, she slipped and fell more than 150 feet down a snowy slope. When Walter reached her, she was conscious but unable to stand. "I just need to rest," she told him, admitting her hands and feet were frozen. Walter made her as comfortable as he could before setting out for help, a desperate journey through worsening snow and wind.

Walter reached Timberline Cabin after more than two hours, and a rescue party quickly mobilized. The effort was not without tragedy: one rescuer, Hubert Sortland, became lost in the storm and died. When Walter and Jacob Christian finally reached Agnes later that day, she was already gone. She lay exactly as he had left her, her head resting on her knapsack, her ice axe still in her hand.

Agnes's death reverberated through Denver’s social circles and the Colorado Mountain Club, where she had been a prominent member. She had also worked as secretary for the Denver Chamber of Commerce and served abroad with the Red Cross. Her story became a sobering reminder of the mountain’s unforgiving nature and a rallying cry for greater climber education and safety.

In 1927, the Agnes Vaille Shelter Cabin was constructed near the site of her final climb, both a memorial and a practical resource to protect future adventurers. Today, her legacy lives on not only in stone but in the collective memory of those who continue to be drawn to Longs Peak’s dramatic heights, reminded always of the courage, resilience, and caution her story commands.

Women of RMNP
Since the 1870s, women have helped shape the history and future of RMNP. As explorers, writers, lodge owners, teachers, and advocates, they brought attention to the area, supported its preservation, and laid the foundation for the park’s visitor services and interpretation programs that continue today.

Isabella Bird, Author and Early Mountaineer
When Isabella Bird arrived in Colorado in the early 1870s, she found a place that surpassed anything she had imagined. Surrounded by dramatic peaks and open skies, she felt she had discovered the exact landscape she had long been searching for. Her time in the Estes Park valley would become one of the most important chapters of her adventurous life.

Isabella Bird was an English traveler and writer who journeyed across North America, Asia, Europe, and Australia. She often battled poor health when staying in one place too long, but found energy and strength in the outdoors. She supported herself by writing about her travels, and one of her most memorable journeys brought her to the area that would later become RMNP.

After a visit to Hawaii, Bird heard stories about a place in Colorado said to be the most beautiful in all of the Americas. She made her way to Estes Park and stayed at Griff Evans’ Cottage Camp on Fish Creek. With the help of her guide, Jim Nugent, known locally as “Rocky Mountain Jim”, she explored the surrounding valley and eventually climbed Longs Peak, becoming the second woman known to do so. Just a month earlier, Anna E. Dickinson had made the ascent as a guest of the Hayden Expedition. The unlikely friendship between the refined Englishwoman and the rugged mountain man left a lasting impression on local lore.

Her experiences were captured in A Lady’s Life in the Rocky Mountains, a book published in 1879, drawn from letters she had sent home to her sister in Scotland. The book was a major success in Britain and even gained popularity in France. Her vivid storytelling helped draw attention to Estes Park as a destination, and her work played a key role in generating interest in the natural beauty of the Rockies, contributing to the early support for national parks.

Mary Belle King Sherman, “The National Park Lady”
Among the many voices who worked to create RMNP, Mary Belle King Sherman played a key role in winning public support. A parliamentary law instructor at the John Marshall School of Law in Chicago and a philanthropist, she moved with her husband, John Dickenson Sherman, to Estes Park in 1909.

Mary Belle used her position in the Federated Women’s Club to rally support for the idea of a national park in Colorado. At a time when few were making the connection, she was already promoting the belief that spending time outdoors could benefit children’s health.

She gave talks at women’s clubs throughout Colorado and beyond, encouraging others to support the creation of a new national park. At the 1915 National Park Conference in Berkeley, California, she said, “every community should have a place in which the people may spend their leisure time, where they will be brought in direct contact with things of beauty and interest in the outdoor world.”

Her work earned her the nickname “National Park Lady.” As Chairperson for the Conservation Department of the Federated Women’s Clubs, she helped gather national support for RMNP, and later played a part in the creation of the Grand Canyon and five more national parks.

Imogene Green MacPhearson, Lodge Builder of Moraine Park
Originally from Indiana and born Mary Imogene Bates, Imogene Green MacPhearson led a bold and independent life. During the Civil War, she made the dangerous journey into Confederate territory to bring her ill husband back from a Union Camp. Together they went on to open one of the first veteran hospitals, along with several other ventures. After their divorce in 1894, MacPhearson headed west to Denver and eventually found her way to the Rocky Mountains.

During a summer visit to Abner Sprague’s dude ranch, she fell in love with the landscape and soon after purchased land nearby. She called her homestead “Hillcrest” and received a land patent in 1903. A few years later, she married William D. MacPhearson.

Active in the Estes Park Women’s Club, MacPhearson contributed to the founding of the local library while also turning her property into a growing tourist destination. Her first building went up in 1905, followed by guest cabins, a livery stable, a dining room, and a main lodge. By 1910, she was welcoming guests to Moraine Park Lodge, which offered sweeping views of the valley. She managed the operation herself, allowing her husband only to clerk the front desk. She was proud that her land became part of the proposed national park and continued to grow her business, acquiring other properties in the Estes Park area throughout the early 1900s.

Today, the only remaining structure from the Moraine Park Lodge is the Assembly Hall, built in 1923. After the National Park Service purchased the land in 1931, the building was converted into the Moraine Park Visitor Center, which still welcomes thousands of visitors each summer.

Elizabeth and Esther Burnell, Pioneer Nature Guides
In the summer of 1916, sisters Elizabeth and Esther Burnell arrived at Longs Peak Inn in Estes Park. Both were college graduates and quickly developed a strong connection to the area. Esther eventually claimed a homestead near MacGregor Pass and stayed through the rugged winters. She later gained recognition for completing a 30-mile snowshoe trek across the Continental Divide.

A year after their arrival, Enos Mills encouraged both sisters to take the park’s nature guide examination. They passed and were officially licensed as nature guides by RMNP. At the time, Superintendent Claude Way believed their presence met a long-unfilled need, and both became well-liked among visitors. While Way originally intended for female guides to lead only short hikes below treeline, Elizabeth became the first woman approved to guide groups up Longs Peak. She later directed Mills’ trail school for twelve summers before moving to Los Angeles to focus on nature education in schools.

In 1918, Esther married Enos Mills and partnered with him in managing Longs Peak Inn. After his unexpected passing in 1922, she continued running the inn and promoting his legacy and published works for over two decades.

Margaret Fuller Boos, First Female Ranger-Naturalist
Margaret Fuller Boos joined RMNP in the summer of 1928 as its first female ranger-naturalist. Although women wouldn’t officially hold the title of Park Ranger for several more decades, Boos stepped into the role at a time when it was uncommon to see women in uniformed interpretive positions. She had recently completed her PhD in Geology and had conducted research for a detailed geology guide covering the Front Range.

Superintendent Roger Toll brought her onto the team for her strong background in public speaking and education. He also hoped she would contribute to the park’s growing collection of lantern slides used for evening programs.

She spent the summers of 1928 and 1929 leading hikes, presenting interpretive talks, and managing the park’s educational efforts. Dressed in the same uniform as her male colleagues, Boos wrote over twenty Nature Notes articles on scientific subjects and compiled a geology guide for the park. Though she was offered a permanent position in 1929, she chose instead to join her husband in other work. Later in life, she played a role in founding the Geology Department at the University of Denver.